NCERT CLASS 7 HISTORY Chapter 8 Devotional Paths To The Divine

Chapter 8

Devotional  Paths To The Divine

   People perform rituals of worship, or sing bhajans, kirtans or qawwalis, or even repeat the name
      of God in silence, and some of them are even moved to tears.

   Such intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements
      that have evolved since the eighth century.

The Idea of a Supreme God

   Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and
      goddesses.

   As people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas
      began to develop.

   The idea that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
      deeds and bad came to be widely accepted.

   Similarly, the idea that all human beings are not equal even at birth gained ground during this

period. The belief that social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.

   Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
      according to which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth
      through personal effort.

   Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage
      if approached with devotion (or bhakti). This idea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita, grew in
      popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.

   Shiva, Vishnu and Durga as supreme deities came to be worshipped through elaborate rituals. At
      the same time, gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with
      Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.

   In the process, local myths and legends became a part of the Puranic stories, and methods of
      worship recommended in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.

   Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was possible for devotees to receive the grace of
      God regardless of their caste status.

   The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.

A New Kind of Bhakti in South India - Nayanars and Alvars

   The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the

Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.

   They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or
      Vishnu as the path to salvation.

   They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliest
      example of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era) and
      blended them with the values of bhakti.

   The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems in praise of the
      deities enshrined in the villages they visited, and set them to music.

   Between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples

around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship. This was also the time when their poems were compiled.

   Besides, hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed.
      Today we use these texts as sources for writing histories of the bhakti tradition.

Philosophy and Bhakti

   Shankara:

   He was one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth
      century.

   He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and
      the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality.

   He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any
      attributes.

   He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation
      of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of
      Brahman and attain salvation.

   Ramanuja:

    Born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century, he was deeply influenced by the Alvars.     According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to
      Vishnu. Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the bliss of union with Him.    He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even
      when united with the Supreme God remained distinct.

    Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north
      India subsequently.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

   The connection between the Tamil bhakti movement and temple worship led to a reaction that is
      best represented in the Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his companions like
      Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.

   This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.

   The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical
      ideas about caste and the treatment of women.

   They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.

The Saints of Maharashtra

   From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets,
      whose songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people.

   The most important among them were Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as

women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar
caste.

   This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur,
      as well as on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.

   These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences
      based on birth.

   In fact they even rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families,
      earning their livelihood like any other person, while humbly serving fellow human beings in
      need.

   A new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain. As the
      famous Gujarati saint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas who understand the pain of
      others.”

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

   A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticized the ritual and other
      aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.

   Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis. They advocated renunciation of the
      world.

   To them the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the
      realisation of oneness with it.

   To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like
      yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.

   These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes. Their criticism of conventional
      religion created the ground for devotional religion to become a popular force in northern India.

Islam and Sufism

   The sants had much in common with the Sufis, so much so that it is believed that they adopted
      many ideas of each other.

   Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion
      to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings.

   Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It also rejected idol worship and
      considerably simplified rituals of worship into collective prayers. At the same time Muslim
      scholars developed a holy law called Shariat.

   The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behavior demanded by Muslim
      religious scholars. They sought union with God much as a lover seeks his beloved with a
      disregard for the world.

   Like the saint-poets, the Sufis too composed poems expressing their feelings, and a rich literature
      in prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them. Among the great Sufis of
      Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.

   Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, the Sufis too believed that the heart can be trained to
      look at the world in a different way.

   They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula),
      contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under
      the guidance of a master or pir. Thus emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each
      following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.

   A large number of Sufis from Central Asia settled in Hindustan from the eleventh century
      onwards. This process was strengthened with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate when
      several major Sufi centres developed all over the subcontinent.

   The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It had a long line of teachers like

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.

   The Sufi masters held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices. Devotees of all descriptions
      including members of the royalty and nobility, and ordinary people flocked to these khanqahs.
      They discussed spiritual matters, sought the blessings of the saints in solving their worldly
      problems, or simply attended the music and dance sessions.

   Often people attributed Sufi masters with miraculous powers that could relieve others of their

illnesses and troubles. The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged.

New Religious Developments in North
India

   The period after the thirteenth century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in north India.
      This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the
      Nathpanths, Siddhas and Yogis influenced one another.

   New towns and kingdoms were emerging, and people were taking up new professions and finding
      new roles for themselves. Such people, especially craftspersons, peasants, traders and labourers,
      thronged to listen to these new saints and spread their ideas.

   Some of them like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions.

   Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these
      accessible to all.

   Tulsidas:

    He conceived of God in the form of Rama.

    His composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern

Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work.

   Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagara,
      Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion.

   Also contemporary was Shankaradeva of Assam (late fifteenth century) who emphasised
      devotion to Vishnu, and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He began the practice of
      setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that continues to date.

   This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.

   Mirabai:

   She was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth
      century.

    Mirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered “untouchable”.
   She was devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans expressing her intense
      devotion.

   Her songs also openly challenged the norms of the “upper” castes and became popular
      with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

   A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages
      and could be sung. They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from
      generation to generation.

   Usually the poorest, most deprived communities and women transmitted these songs, often
      adding their own experiences.

   Thus the songs as we have them today are as much a creation of the saints as of generations of
      people who sang them. They have become a part of our living popular culture.

A Closer Look: Kabir

   Kabir, who probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of the most influential
      saints.

   He was brought up in a family of Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benares
      (Varanasi).

   We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have
      been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these were later collected
      and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.

   Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, indeed vehement, rejection of the major religious
      traditions.

   His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and
      Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system.

   The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi widely understood by ordinary people. He
      also sometimes used cryptic language, which is difficult to follow.

   Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was
      through bhakti or devotion. Kabir drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims.

A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

   Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan) and travelled widely
      before establishing a centre at Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi). A regular worship
      that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established there for his followers.

    Irrespective of their former creed, caste or gender, his followers ate together in the common

kitchen (langar). The sacred space thus created by Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurdwara.

   Before his death in 1539, Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor. His name
      was Lehna but he came to be known as Guru Angad, signifying that he wasa part of Guru Nanak
      himself.

   Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new
      script known as Gurmukhi.

   The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of “Nanak” and all of their

compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604. To this compilation were added the writings of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur.

   In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by his son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh. It is
      now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs.

   Guru Nanak’s followers belonged to a number of castes but traders, agriculturists, artisans and
      craftsmen predominated. This may have something to do with Guru Nanak’s insistence that his
      followers must be householders and should adopt productive and useful occupations.

   The followers were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of
      followers.

   By the beginning of the seventeenth century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed
      around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple). It was virtually self-
      governing and modern historians refer to the early seventeenth century Sikh community as ‘a
      state within the state’.

   The Mughal emperor Jahangir looked upon them as a potential threat and he ordered the
      execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.

   The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the seventeenth century, a development which

culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. The community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity.

   The changing historical situation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries influenced the
      development of the Sikh movement.

   The ideas of Guru Nanak had a huge impact on this development from the very beginning.

    He emphasized the importance of the worship of one God.

    He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation.

   His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active
      life with a strong sense of social commitment.

   He himself used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which
      actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
   His teachings are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which
      also underline the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping
      others.

    Thus, Guru Nanak’s idea of equality had social and political implications.

    This might partly explain the difference between the history of the followers of Guru
      Nanak and the history of the followers of the other religious figures of the medieval
      centuries, like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu whose ideas were very similar to those of Guru
      Nanak.


Important Questions.

1. Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis.
2. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?
3. What were the major teachings of Baba Guru Nanak?