THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
What is nationalism?
Nationalism is a feeling that develops
patriotism among the citizens of a country. It helps citizens to maintain unity
among themselves and also to protect and preserve their unique culture,
traditions, and practices.
What is a nation-state?
A nation-state is a country with a definite
boundary where the citizens enjoy sovereignty and develop a nationalist
feeling.
1. The French Revolution and the idea of the nation.
Before
the French Revolution, the feeling of nationalism was not there among the
people of the world. The nationalist feeling to create a nation-state first
appeared in 1789 during the French Revolution.
To create nationalist feelings among the
people, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices. They are as follows-
- Emphasized equal rights under a constitution.
- A new tricolor flag was chosen.
- The Estate General was elected and also renamed the National Assembly.
- New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, everything in the name of the nation.
- Uniform laws for all citizens were formulated.
- Internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
- Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the nation.
- Set up a mission to liberate the people of Europe from despotism. (Despotism: Dictatorship)
When Napoleon started to rule France, he brought back the monarchical form of government and destroyed democracy in France. Although he destroyed democracy in France, he introduced several rational and efficient principles for the welfare and development of French society. Some of them are as follows-
- Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also called the Napoleonic Code. It abolished all privileges people earn based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
- Simplified administrative divisions.
- Abolished the feudal system.
- Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
- Removed guild restrictions.
- Improved the transport and communication system.
- Standardized weights and measures were introduced.
- A common currency was adopted.
- The political freedom of citizens declined.
- Increased taxation.
- Censorship.
- Forced conscription into the French army.
During the mid-eighteenth century in Europe, there were no 'nation-states'. The countries were divided into Kingdoms. The people of Europe had different cultural backgrounds, spoke different languages, belong to different ethnic groups, etc. In other words, there are diverse groups of people residing in Europe.
Now how the feeling of nationalism and the concept of nation-states will emerge?
2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class.
The landed aristocracy was the dominant class of Europe both socially and politically. But the number of people belonging to this class was very less. The majority of the population belong to the peasantry class.
Industrialization in France and Germany occurred during the nineteenth century. With industrialization, new social groups, a working-class population, and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals came into being.
The ideas of national unity developed among the educated, liberal middle classes after the fall of aristocratic privileges.
2.2 What did liberal nationalism stand for?
For the new middle classes in early nineteenth-century Europe, liberalism means freedom for the individual and equality before the law. Liberalism emphasized the end of autocratic rule, equal political rights ( right to vote by all adult citizens), economic liberalism( freedom of markets and removal of trade restrictions). Also, improvement in transport and communication led to economic development and also national unification. Thus economic nationalism helped the nationalist feelings to gain strength.
2.3 A new conservatism after 1815.
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Conservatism ruled over Europe. But they don't want to rule Europe as it was ruled before 1789. The European powers, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria who had collectively defeated Napoleon draw up the treaty of Vienna in 1815. After 1815, the Bourbon dynasty was brought back to power and the annexed territories of France under Napoleon were lost. But the German Federation of 39 states set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
The conservative rule set up in 1815 was autocratic. The conservatives also imposed censorship.
The liberal nationalists especially criticized the restrictions imposed on freedom of the press.
2.4 The Revolutionaries.
After 1815, many secret revolutionary societies were formed to oppose the monarchical system and to fight for liberty and freedom. They wanted to create nation-states developed under democratic principles.
Giuseppe Mazzini became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. Later, he founded another two underground revolutionary societies- Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. Secret societies were established in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Poland to establish democratic societies.
3. The Age of Revolution: 1830-1848.
The liberalist and nationalists revolted against the conservative regimes of many regions of Europe like Italian and German states, the Ottoman empire, Ireland and Poland. The Revolution started in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been bought back to power by the conservatives in 1815, were overthrown from power and installed constitutional monarchy in France with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution resulted in Belgium being separated from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Greece, a part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century, started its struggle for independence in 1821. The nationalists continued their struggle for independence and with the treaty of Constantinople of 1832, Greece became independent.
3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling.
Culture in the form of art and poetry, music and stories played an important role in creating a nationalist feeling in the minds of the people. Romanticism, a cultural movement regard a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. So, folk songs, folk poetry, folk dances were essential for the nation-building. Culture can spread the nationalist message even to the illiterates.
As for example, the nationalist feelings were kept alive through music and language in partitioned Poland in the late eighteenth century. The Polish language was used as a nationalist symbol of Poland's struggle against Russian dominance.
3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt.
In the 1830s in Europe, there was a great economic hardship. People became jobless as small producers face stiff competition from the imports of industrial goods from England.
In 1848, food shortages and large scale unemployment occurred in Paris. Louis Philippe was forced by the locals to flee. Steps were taken to provide employment.
In 1845, weavers revolted against contractors as contractors supplied raw materials to the weavers and purchased finished goods at a very low price.
3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
Along with the revolt of the poor, a revolution led by the educated middle classes also took place in the year 1848 in France. These revolts resulted in the fall of the monarchical form of government and granting universal male suffrage. In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian empire, which at that time did not exist as nation-states combined their demands for constitutional government and national unification and also freedom of press and freedom of association.
In Germany, on 18th May 1848, 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution headed by monarchy subject by the parliament. Gradually, the parliament dominated by the middle classes did not pay attention to the demands of the workers and the artisans. Ultimately the assembly was disbanded.
Women had also formed political associations to gain political rights for women. But they were denied the right to vote. The monarch was beginning to realize that they can rule without revolutionary activities only by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries and being less autocratic
4. The Making of Germany and Italy.
4.1 Germany- Can the army be the Architect of a Nation.
The conservatives, after 1848, used nationalist ideas to strengthen their monarchical rule.
Unification of Germany
The middle-class Germans used the nationalist feelings to unite Germany into a nation-state under an elected parliament. Prussia took the leadership role in uniting Germany into a nation-state. Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck lead the attack. The Prussian army fought three wars with Austria, Denmark, and France over seven years which resulted in a Prussian victory. In January 1871, William 1, a Prussian king became the emperor of Germany. Prussia took the lead in the nation-building process of Germany and introduced several steps in modernizing the banking, currency, legal and judicial systems of Germany.
4.2 Unification of Italy.
Like Germany, Italy was also divided. It was composed of seven states. The Sardinia-Piedmont state was ruled by an Italian Princely house, the north ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, center ruled by Pope and southern region by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
During the 1830s, Guiseppe started his mission to unite the Italian states into one. He formed a society called Young Italy. After the revolutionary uprisings failed to unite the Italian states, state Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel 2 had to take the responsibility to unify the Italian States. Chief Minister Carvour led the movement. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Carvour succeded in defeating Austria in 1859. In 1860 under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, they succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel 2 became the king of Unified Italy.
4.3 The strange case of Britain.
Before the eighteenth century, the concept of nation-state was not there in Britain. People from a different racial background such as the English, Welsh, Scot or Irish inhabited there. The English nation, as it became powerful, exerted its influence over the other nations. After the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy in the year 1688, a nation-state, with England at its center was made forcefully. The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of 'United Kingdom of Great Britain' and started its influence over Scotland. The Catholic Clans of the Scottish highlands faced terrible repressions and were not allowed to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress and a large number of them were expelled from their homeland.
In Ireland, there were two groups of people, Catholics, and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants to dominate the Catholics. After a failed revolt in 1798, Ireland was forcefully included in the United Kingdom in 1801. A new 'British nation' was made with dominant English culture and the other nations only act as sub-ordinates to England.
5. Visualizing the Nation.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth century, artists used female figures to personify a nation. The female figure thus represents a symbol of the nation.
At the time of the French Revolution also, female symbols were used to signify liberty, justice, and republic. In France, Christened Marianne and in Germany, Germania became the symbol of France and Germany respectively. Specific objects like the red cap, the broken chain, weighing scales were also used.
6. Nationalism and Imperialism.
Nationalism lost its idealistic liberal democratic principles by the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The nationalist groups became intolerant to each other and were ready to go for war with each other to extend their boundary. The powerful European nations took advantage of this situation to establish their imperialist rule. The Balkan region is one such example. The Balkan region constitutes present-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, and Serbia.
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Conservatism ruled over Europe. But they don't want to rule Europe as it was ruled before 1789. The European powers, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria who had collectively defeated Napoleon draw up the treaty of Vienna in 1815. After 1815, the Bourbon dynasty was brought back to power and the annexed territories of France under Napoleon were lost. But the German Federation of 39 states set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
The conservative rule set up in 1815 was autocratic. The conservatives also imposed censorship.
The liberal nationalists especially criticized the restrictions imposed on freedom of the press.
2.4 The Revolutionaries.
After 1815, many secret revolutionary societies were formed to oppose the monarchical system and to fight for liberty and freedom. They wanted to create nation-states developed under democratic principles.
Giuseppe Mazzini became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. Later, he founded another two underground revolutionary societies- Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. Secret societies were established in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Poland to establish democratic societies.
3. The Age of Revolution: 1830-1848.
The liberalist and nationalists revolted against the conservative regimes of many regions of Europe like Italian and German states, the Ottoman empire, Ireland and Poland. The Revolution started in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been bought back to power by the conservatives in 1815, were overthrown from power and installed constitutional monarchy in France with Louis Philippe at its head. The July Revolution resulted in Belgium being separated from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Greece, a part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century, started its struggle for independence in 1821. The nationalists continued their struggle for independence and with the treaty of Constantinople of 1832, Greece became independent.
3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling.
Culture in the form of art and poetry, music and stories played an important role in creating a nationalist feeling in the minds of the people. Romanticism, a cultural movement regard a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. So, folk songs, folk poetry, folk dances were essential for the nation-building. Culture can spread the nationalist message even to the illiterates.
As for example, the nationalist feelings were kept alive through music and language in partitioned Poland in the late eighteenth century. The Polish language was used as a nationalist symbol of Poland's struggle against Russian dominance.
3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt.
In the 1830s in Europe, there was a great economic hardship. People became jobless as small producers face stiff competition from the imports of industrial goods from England.
In 1848, food shortages and large scale unemployment occurred in Paris. Louis Philippe was forced by the locals to flee. Steps were taken to provide employment.
In 1845, weavers revolted against contractors as contractors supplied raw materials to the weavers and purchased finished goods at a very low price.
3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
Along with the revolt of the poor, a revolution led by the educated middle classes also took place in the year 1848 in France. These revolts resulted in the fall of the monarchical form of government and granting universal male suffrage. In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian empire, which at that time did not exist as nation-states combined their demands for constitutional government and national unification and also freedom of press and freedom of association.
In Germany, on 18th May 1848, 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution headed by monarchy subject by the parliament. Gradually, the parliament dominated by the middle classes did not pay attention to the demands of the workers and the artisans. Ultimately the assembly was disbanded.
Women had also formed political associations to gain political rights for women. But they were denied the right to vote. The monarch was beginning to realize that they can rule without revolutionary activities only by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries and being less autocratic
4. The Making of Germany and Italy.
4.1 Germany- Can the army be the Architect of a Nation.
The conservatives, after 1848, used nationalist ideas to strengthen their monarchical rule.
Unification of Germany
The middle-class Germans used the nationalist feelings to unite Germany into a nation-state under an elected parliament. Prussia took the leadership role in uniting Germany into a nation-state. Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck lead the attack. The Prussian army fought three wars with Austria, Denmark, and France over seven years which resulted in a Prussian victory. In January 1871, William 1, a Prussian king became the emperor of Germany. Prussia took the lead in the nation-building process of Germany and introduced several steps in modernizing the banking, currency, legal and judicial systems of Germany.
4.2 Unification of Italy.
Like Germany, Italy was also divided. It was composed of seven states. The Sardinia-Piedmont state was ruled by an Italian Princely house, the north ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, center ruled by Pope and southern region by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
During the 1830s, Guiseppe started his mission to unite the Italian states into one. He formed a society called Young Italy. After the revolutionary uprisings failed to unite the Italian states, state Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel 2 had to take the responsibility to unify the Italian States. Chief Minister Carvour led the movement. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Carvour succeded in defeating Austria in 1859. In 1860 under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, they succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel 2 became the king of Unified Italy.
4.3 The strange case of Britain.
Before the eighteenth century, the concept of nation-state was not there in Britain. People from a different racial background such as the English, Welsh, Scot or Irish inhabited there. The English nation, as it became powerful, exerted its influence over the other nations. After the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy in the year 1688, a nation-state, with England at its center was made forcefully. The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of 'United Kingdom of Great Britain' and started its influence over Scotland. The Catholic Clans of the Scottish highlands faced terrible repressions and were not allowed to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress and a large number of them were expelled from their homeland.
In Ireland, there were two groups of people, Catholics, and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants to dominate the Catholics. After a failed revolt in 1798, Ireland was forcefully included in the United Kingdom in 1801. A new 'British nation' was made with dominant English culture and the other nations only act as sub-ordinates to England.
5. Visualizing the Nation.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth century, artists used female figures to personify a nation. The female figure thus represents a symbol of the nation.
At the time of the French Revolution also, female symbols were used to signify liberty, justice, and republic. In France, Christened Marianne and in Germany, Germania became the symbol of France and Germany respectively. Specific objects like the red cap, the broken chain, weighing scales were also used.
6. Nationalism and Imperialism.
Nationalism lost its idealistic liberal democratic principles by the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The nationalist groups became intolerant to each other and were ready to go for war with each other to extend their boundary. The powerful European nations took advantage of this situation to establish their imperialist rule. The Balkan region is one such example. The Balkan region constitutes present-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, and Serbia.
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